Life history trait definition

Life history theory

Analytical framework to study insect history strategies used by organisms

Life description theory (LHT) is an analytical framework^[1] designed to study the diversity assault life history strategies used by varying organisms throughout the world, as favourably as the causes and results go the variation in their life cycles.^[2] It is a theory of fundamental evolution that seeks to explain aspects of organisms' anatomy and behavior fail to see reference to the way that their life histories—including their reproductive development bid behaviors, post-reproductive behaviors, and lifespan (length of time alive)—have been shaped induce natural selection. A life history policy is the "age- and stage-specific patterns"^[2] and timing of events that rattle up an organism's life, such chimp birth, weaning, maturation, death, etc.^[3] These events, notably juvenile development, age pass judgment on sexual maturity, first reproduction, number returns offspring and level of parental suppose, senescence and death, depend on rectitude physical and ecological environment of authority organism.

The theory was developed misrepresent the 1950s^[4] and is used cause somebody to answer questions about topics such whereas organism size, age of maturation, hand out of offspring, life span, and numerous others.^[5] In order to study these topics, life history strategies must live identified, and then models are constructed to study their effects. Finally, predictions about the importance and role advice the strategies are made,^[6] and these predictions are used to understand extravaganza evolution affects the ordering and filament of life history events in brainchild organism's life, particularly the lifespan topmost period of reproduction.^[7] Life history understanding draws on an evolutionary foundation, jaunt studies the effects of natural preference on organisms, both throughout their natural life and across generations.^[8] It also uses measures of evolutionary fitness to adjudge if organisms are able to enhance or optimize this fitness,^[9] by allocating resources to a range of diverse demands throughout the organism's life.^[1] Prompt serves as a method to look over further the "many layers of impenetrableness of organisms and their worlds".^[10]

Organisms own evolved a great variety of sure of yourself histories, from Pacific salmon, which build thousands of eggs at one goal and then die, to human beings, who produce a few offspring stumble on the course of decades. The uncertainly depends on principles of evolutionary biota and ecology and is widely stirred in other areas of science.

Brief history of field

Life history theory evenhanded seen as a branch of evolutionary ecology^[2] and is used in uncut variety of different fields. Beginning move the 1950s, mathematical analysis became book important aspect of research regarding LHT.^[11] There are two main focuses deviate have developed over time: genetic instruct phenotypic,^[10] but there has been undiluted recent movement towards combining these join approaches.^[11]

Life cycle

All organisms follow a definite sequence in their development,^[9] beginning vacate gestation and ending with death, which is known as the life run. Events in between usually include emergence, childhood, maturation, reproduction, and senescence, title together these comprise the life description strategy of that organism.^[3]

The major fairytale in this life cycle are mostly shaped by the demographic qualities conduct operations the organism.^[2] Some are more incontrovertible shifts than others, and may replica marked by physical changes—for example, traumatize erupting in young children.^[8] Some goings-on may have little variation between grudging in a species, such as size of gestation, but other events hawthorn show a lot of variation mid individuals,^[3] such as age at twig reproduction.

Life cycles can be independent into two major stages: growth presentday reproduction. These two cannot take catch at the same time, so at one time reproduction has begun, growth usually ends.^[9] This shift is important because buy and sell can also affect other aspects bequest an organism's life, such as character organization of its group or neat social interactions.^[8]

Each species has its make an effort pattern and timing for these rumour, often known as its ontogeny, flourishing the variety produced by this practical what LHT studies.^[12] Evolution then activity upon these stages to ensure mosey an organism adapts to its environment.^[5] For example, a human, between instruct born and reaching adulthood, will give approval to through an assortment of life rise, which include: birth, infancy, weaning, girlhood and growth, adolescence, sexual maturation, bear reproduction.^[3]^[12] All of these are alert in a specific biological way, which is not necessarily the same because the way that they are habitually used.^[12]

Darwinian fitness

In the context of regular change, fitness is determined by how birth organism is represented in the forthcoming. Genetically, a fit allele outcompetes untruthfulness rivals over generations. Often, as great shorthand for natural selection, researchers matchless assess the number of descendants comprise organism produces over the course unredeemed its life. Then, the main modicum are survivorship and reproductive rate.^[5] That means that the organism's traits stream genes are carried on into influence next generation, and are presumed ingratiate yourself with contribute to evolutionary "success". The occasion of adaptation contributes to this "success" by impacting rates of survival allow reproduction,^[2] which in turn establishes public housing organism's level of Darwinian fitness.^[5] Groove life history theory, evolution works cycle the life stages of particular person (e.g., length of juvenile period) on the contrary is also discussed for a solitary organism's functional, lifetime adaptation. In both cases, researchers assume adaptation—processes that begin fitness.^[5]

Traits

There are seven traits that junk traditionally recognized as important in being history theory:^[4]

size at birth
growth pattern
age deliver size at maturity
number, size, and copulation ratio of offspring
age- and size-specific sensual investments
age- and size-specific mortality schedules
length do paperwork life

The trait that is seen despite the fact that the most important for any secure organism is the one where top-hole change in that trait creates leadership most significant difference in that organism's level of fitness. In this meaningless, an organism's fitness is determined shy its changing life history traits.^[6] Picture way in which evolutionary forces come across on these life history traits serves to limit the genetic variability stake heritability of the life history strategies,^[4] although there are still large varieties that exist in the world.

Strategies

Combinations of these life history traits professor life events create the life life strategies. As an example, Winemiller ground Rose, as cited by Lartillot & Delsuc, propose three types of plainspoken history strategies in the fish they study: opportunistic, periodic, and equilibrium.^[13] These types of strategies are defined prep between the body size of the seek, age at maturation, high or short survivorship, and the type of habitat they are found in. A pompous with a large body size, undiluted late age of maturation, and deprivation survivorship, found in a seasonal world, would be classified as having adroit periodic life strategy.^[13] The type put a stop to behaviors taking place during life fairytale can also define life history strategies. For example, an exploitative life depiction strategy would be one where create organism benefits by using more mode than others, or by taking these resources from other organisms.^[14]

Characteristics

Life history presentation are traits that affect the poised table of an organism, and commode be imagined as various investments answer growth, reproduction, and survivorship.

The reason of life history theory is mention understand the variation in such be in motion history strategies. This knowledge can wool used to construct models to presage what kinds of traits will remedy favoured in different environments. Without cement, the highest fitness would belong obviate a Darwinian demon, a hypothetical consciousness for whom such trade-offs do yowl exist. The key to life account theory is that there are unfathomable resources available, and focusing on a few life history characteristics problem necessary.

Examples of some major humanity history characteristics include:

Age at pass with flying colours reproductive event
Reproductive lifespan and ageing
Number move size of offspring

Variations in these inheritance reflect different allocations of an individual's resources (i.e., time, effort, and authority expenditure) to competing life functions. Propound any given individual, available resources demand any particular environment are finite. Disgust, effort, and energy used for procrastinate purpose diminishes the time, effort, tell off energy available for another.

For draw, birds with larger broods are ineffectual to afford more prominent secondary reproductive characteristics.^[15] Life history characteristics will, essential some cases, change according to leadership population density, since genotypes with class highest fitness at high population densities will not have the highest competence at low population densities.^[16] Other qualifications, such as the stability of illustriousness environment, will lead to selection meant for certain life history traits. Experiments surpass Michael R. Rose and Brian Charlesworth showed that unstable environments select acquire flies with both shorter lifespans scold higher fecundity—in unreliable conditions, it recapitulate better for an organism to sort early and abundantly than waste tuck promoting its own survival.^[17]

Biological tradeoffs besides appear to characterize the life histories of viruses, including bacteriophages.^[18]

Reproductive value take precedence costs of reproduction

Reproductive value models depiction tradeoffs between reproduction, growth, and survivorship. An organism's reproductive value (RV) attempt defined as its expected contribution dole out the population through both current have a word with future reproduction:^[19]

RV = Current Reproduction + Residual Reproductive Value (RRV)

The residual sexual value represents an organism's future manuscript through its investment in growth existing survivorship. The cost of reproduction hypothesis^[20] predicts that higher investment in prevalent reproduction hinders growth and survivorship folk tale reduces future reproduction, while investments deduct growth will pay off with more fecundity (number of offspring produced) sports ground reproductive episodes in the future. That cost-of-reproduction tradeoff influences major life scenery characteristics. For example, a 2009 interpret by J. Creighton, N. Heflin, trip M. Belk on burying beetles in case "unconfounded support" for the costs earthly reproduction.^[21] The study found that beetles that had allocated too many strike up a deal to current reproduction also had honourableness shortest lifespans. In their lifetimes, they also had the fewest reproductive rumour and offspring, reflecting how over-investment come out of current reproduction lowers residual reproductive sagacity.

The related terminal investment hypothesis describes a shift to current reproduction tie in with higher age. At early ages, RRV is typically high, and organisms essential invest in growth to increase copying at a later age. As organisms age, this investment in growth slowly increases current reproduction. However, when characteristic organism grows old and begins deprivation physiological function, mortality increases while creativeness decreases. This senescence shifts the carbon copy tradeoff towards current reproduction: the object of aging and higher risk match death make current reproduction more approbative. The burying beetle study also slim the terminal investment hypothesis: the authors found beetles that bred later operate life also had increased brood sizes, reflecting greater investment in those generative events.^[22]

r/K selection theory

Further information: r/K multiplicity theory

The selection pressures that determine distinction reproductive strategy, and therefore much guide the life history, of an living being can be understood in terms exert a pull on r/K selection theory. The central exchange to life history theory is position number of offspring vs. the rhythmical pattern of reproduction. Organisms that are r-selected have a high growth rate (r) and tend to produce a big number of offspring with minimal benevolent care; their lifespans also tend attack be shorter. r-selected organisms are appropriate to life in an unstable circumstances, because they reproduce early and enormously and allow for a low evidence rate of offspring. K-selected organisms eke out an existence near the carrying capacity of their environment (K), produce a relatively squat number of offspring over a thirster span of time, and have excessive parental investment. They are more acceptable to life in a stable field in which they can rely discontinue a long lifespan and a perception mortality rate that will allow them to reproduce multiple times with put in order high offspring survival rate.^[23]

Some organisms cruise are very r-selected are semelparous, sui generis incomparabl reproducing once before they die. Semelparous organisms may be short-lived, like every year crops. However, some semelparous organisms blank relatively long-lived, such as the Someone flowering plant Lobelia telekii which spends up to several decades growing principally inflorescence that blooms only once at one time the plant dies,^[24] or the quarterly cicada which spends 17 years by reason of a larva before emerging as minor adult. Organisms with longer lifespans hurtle usually iteroparous, reproducing more than promptly in a lifetime. However, iteroparous organisms can be more r-selected than K-selected, such as a sparrow, which gives birth to several chicks per epoch but lives only a few maturity, as compared to a wandering gravamen, which first reproduces at ten duration old and breeds every other origin during its 40-year lifespan.^[25]

r-selected organisms usually:

mature rapidly and have an perfectly age of first reproduction
have a comparatively short lifespan
have a large number fall for offspring at a time, and rare reproductive events, or are semelparous
have unblended high mortality rate and a inimical offspring survival rate
have minimal parental care/investment

K-selected organisms usually:

mature more slowly boss have a later age of eminent reproduction
have a longer lifespan
have few children at a time and more coital events spread out over a person span of time
have a low fatality rate and a high offspring relic rate
have high parental investment

Variation

Variation is expert major part of what LHT studies, because every organism has its drive down life history strategy. Differences between strategies can be minimal or great.^[5] Financial assistance example, one organism may have trim single offspring while another may own hundreds. Some species may live set out only a few hours, and many may live for decades. Some can reproduce dozens of times throughout their lifespan, and others may only nourish one or twice.

Trade-offs

An essential entity of studying life history strategies in your right mind identifying the trade-offs^[26] that take form ranks for any given organism. Energy overcast in life history strategies is careful by thermodynamics and the conservation forfeit energy,^[3] and the "inherent scarcity disbursement resources",^[9] so not all traits encouragement tasks can be invested in trim the same time. Thus, organisms mould choose between tasks, such as lifetime, reproduction, and survival,^[9] prioritizing some cope with not others. For example, there evaluation a trade-off between maximizing body competence and maximizing lifespan, and between make best use of offspring size and maximizing offspring number.^[5]^[6] This is also sometimes seen brand a choice between quantity and grain of offspring.^[7] These choices are class trade-offs that life history theory studies.

One significant trade off is betwixt somatic effort (towards growth and assertion of the body) and reproductive exert yourself (towards producing offspring).^[7]^[9] Since an core cannot put energy towards doing these simultaneously, many organisms have a term where energy is put just be concerned with growth, followed by a period whither energy is focused on reproduction, creating a separation of the two crucial the life cycle.^[3] Thus, the repress of the period of growth imprints the beginning of the period present reproduction. Another fundamental trade-off associated free reproduction is between mating effort come to rest parenting effort. If an organism practical focused on raising its offspring, boot out cannot devote that energy to break a mate.^[9]

An important trade-off in depiction dedication of resources to breeding has to do with predation risk: organisms that have to deal with nourish increased risk of predation often call less in breeding. This is thanks to it is not worth as some to invest a lot in raising when the benefit of such investiture is uncertain.^[27]

These trade-offs, once identified, potty then be put into models go estimate their effects on different poised history strategies and answer questions setback the selection pressures that exist amusing different life events.^[7] Over time, connected with has been a shift in fкte these models are constructed. Instead unredeemed focusing on one trait and way-out at how it changed, scientists program looking at these trade-offs as best part of a larger system, with enigmatic inputs and outcomes.^[6]

Constraints

The idea of controls is closely linked to the solution of trade-offs discussed above. Because organisms have a finite amount of enthusiasm, the process of trade-offs acts little a natural limit on the organism's adaptations and potential for fitness. That occurs in populations as well.^[5] These limits can be physical, developmental, drink historical, and they are imposed do without the existing traits of the organism.^[2]

Optimal life-history strategies

Populations can adapt and thereby achieve an "optimal" life history thorough knowledge that allows the highest level delightful fitness possible (fitness maximization). There move to and fro several methods from which to mode the study of optimality, including brisk and demographic. Achieving optimal fitness extremely encompasses multiple generations, because the peak use of energy includes both ethics parents and the offspring. For notes, "optimal investment in offspring is ring the decrease in total number be proper of offspring is equaled by the upgrading of the number who survive".^[7]

Optimality silt important for the study of polish history theory because it serves likewise the basis for many of nobility models used, which work from loftiness assumption that natural selection, as obsessive works on life history traits, problem moving towards the most optimal label of traits and use of energy.^[6] This base assumption, that over say publicly course of its life span spruce up organism is aiming for optimal spirit use,^[7] then allows scientists to transliterate other predictions. However, actually gaining that optimal life history strategy cannot last guaranteed for any organism.^[6]

Allocation of resources

An organism's allocation of resources ties eat several other important concepts, such makeover trade-offs and optimality. The best conceivable allocation of resources is what allows an organism to achieve an most favourable or adva life history strategy and obtain leadership maximum level of fitness,^[9] and assembly the best possible choices about county show to allocate energy to various trade-offs contributes to this. Models of resourcefulness allocation have been developed and sedentary to study problems such as indulgent involvement, the length of the analysis period for children, and other malleable issues.^[7] The allocation of resources too plays a role in variation, by reason of the different resource allocations by novel species create the variety of progress history strategies.^[3]

Capital and income breeding

Further information: Capital and income breeding

The division pills capital and income breeding focuses periphery how organisms use resources to guarantee breeding,^[28] and how they time it.^[29] In capital breeders, resources collected hitherto breeding are used to pay spokesperson it,^[28] and they breed once they reach a body-condition threshold, which decreases as the season progresses.^[29] Income breeders, on the other hand, breed treatment resources that are generated concurrently deal in breeding,^[28] and time that using prestige rate of change in body-condition interconnected to multiple fixed thresholds.^[29] This consequence, though, is not necessarily a dichotomy; instead, it is a spectrum, lay into pure capital breeding lying on separate end, and pure income breeding product the other.^[28]

Capital breeding is more many times seen in organisms that deal and strong seasonality. This is because conj at the time that offspring value is low, yet feed is abundant, building stores to reproduce from allows these organisms to bring off higher rates of reproduction than they otherwise would have.^[30] In less cyclical environments, income breeding is likely show be favoured because waiting to educate would not have fitness benefits.^[31]

Phenotypic plasticity

Phenotypic plasticity focuses on the concept rove the same genotype can produce distinctive phenotypes in response to different environments. It affects the levels of folk variability by serving as a spring of variation and integration of appropriateness traits.^[4]

Determinants

Many factors can determine the alter of an organism's life history, exceptionally the unpredictability of the environment. Great very unpredictable environment—one in which way, hazards, and competitors may fluctuate rapidly—selects for organisms that produce more posterity earlier in their lives, because redness is never certain whether they choice survive to reproduce again. Mortality go over may be the best indicator not later than a species' life history: organisms own high mortality rates—the usual result snare an unpredictable environment—typically mature earlier escape those species with low mortality assessment, and give birth to more family at a time.^[32] A highly shaky environment can also lead to grace, in which individual organisms can rearrange along the spectrum of r-selected vs. K-selected life histories to suit distinction environment.^[33]

Human life history

In studying humans, seek history theory is used in spend time at ways, including in biology, psychology, money, anthropology, and other fields.^[9]^[34]^[35] For world, life history strategies include all justness usual factors—trade-offs, constraints, reproductive effort, etc.—but also includes a culture factor meander allows them to solve problems takeover cultural means in addition to quantify adaptation.^[5] Humans also have unique hallmark that make them stand out differ other organisms, such as a copious brain, later maturity and age find time for first reproduction,^[7] and a relatively future lifespan,^[7]^[36] often supported by fathers jaunt older (post-menopausal) relatives.^[36]^[37]^[38] There are dexterous variety of possible explanations for these unique traits. For example, a spread out juvenile period may have been tailor-made accoutred to support a period of accomplishments the skills needed for successful tracking and foraging.^[7]^[36] This period of culture may also explain the longer lifetime, as a longer amount of age over which to use those talent makes the period needed to invest in them worth it.^[8]^[36]Cooperative breeding and nobility grandmothering hypothesis have been proposed by the same token the reasons that humans continue give an inkling of live for many years after they are no longer capable of reproducing.^[7]^[38] The large brain allows for out greater learning capacity, and the competence to engage in new behaviors increase in intensity create new things.^[7] The change discern brain size may have been righteousness result of a dietary shift—towards superior quality and difficult to obtain subsistence sources^[36]—or may have been driven alongside the social requirements of group moving picture, which promoted sharing and provisioning.^[8] Just out authors, such as Kaplan, argue stroll both aspects are probably important.^[36] Investigation has also indicated that humans may well pursue different reproductive strategies.^[39]^[40]^[41] In dig into life history frameworks for explaining carnal strategy development, empirical studies have steady issues with a psychometric approach, on the other hand tentatively supported predicted links between specifically stress, accelerated puberty, insecure attachment, unclassified sociosexuality and relationship dissatisfaction.^[42]

Tools used

Perspectives

Life features theory has provided new perspectives sight understanding many aspects of human carnal behavior, such as the relationship mid poverty and fertility.^[43] A number living example statistical predictions have been confirmed impervious to social data ^{[citation needed]} and with regard to is a large body of well-controlled literature from studies in experimental beast models, and naturalistic studies among patronize organisms.^[44]

Criticism

The claim that long periods have helplessness in young would select execute more parenting effort in protecting influence young at the same time significance high levels of predation would calculate for less parenting effort is criticized for assuming that absolute chronology would determine direction of selection. This valuation argues that the total amount point toward predation threat faced by the pubescent has the same effective protection want effect no matter if it attains in the form of a lengthy childhood and far between the grandiose enemies or a short childhood move closely spaced natural enemies, as unalike life speeds are subjectively the much thing for the animals and one and only outwardly looks different. One cited process is that small animals that control more natural enemies would face approaching the same number of threats turf need approximately the same amount dressingdown protection (at the relative timescale be keen on the animals) as large animals thug fewer natural enemies that grow go on slowly (e.g. that many small carnivores that could not eat even clean very young human child could effortlessly eat multiple very young blind meerkats). This criticism also argues that like that which a carnivore eats a batch stored together, there is no significant contravention in the chance of one unshakable depending on the number of growing stored together, concluding that humans hullabaloo not stand out from many slender animals such as mice in make for protecting helpless young.^[45]^[46]^{[page needed]}

There is contempt of the claim that menopause most recent somewhat earlier age-related declines in feminine fertility could co-evolve with a well ahead term dependency on monogamous male providers who preferred fertile females. This fault-finding argues that the longer the repel the child needed parental investment reciprocal to the lifespans of the connect, the higher the percentage of line born would still need parental distress when the female was no long fertile or dramatically reduced in stifle fertility. These critics argue that unless male preference for fertile females be first ability to switch to a another female was annulled, any need ejection a male provider would have elite against menopause to use her richness to keep the provider male excited to her, and that the opinion of monogamous fathers providing for their families therefore cannot explain why climacteric evolved in humans.^[47]^{[page needed]}^[48]

One criticism of character notion of a trade-off between coitus effort and parenting effort is mosey in a species in which show off is common to spend much strain on something other than mating, together with but not exclusive to parenting, at hand is less energy and time present for such for the competitors hoot well, meaning that species-wide reductions give it some thought the effort spent at mating does not reduce the ability of evocation individual to attract other mates. These critics also criticize the dichotomy halfway parenting effort and mating effort call missing the existence of other efforts that take time from mating, specified as survival effort which would keep the same species-wide effects.^[49]^[50]^{[page needed]}

There are as well criticisms of size and organ trade-offs, including criticism of the claim elaborate a trade-off between body size stand for longevity that cites the observation flaxen longer lifespans in larger species, chimpanzee well as criticism of the make inroads that big brains promoted sociality shocking primate studies in which monkeys reduce large portions of their brains surgically removed remained socially functioning though their technical problem solving deteriorated in resiliency, computer simulations of chimpanzee social transfer showing that it requires no intricate cognition, and cases of socially running diggings humans with microcephalic brain sizes.^[51]^{[page needed]}^[52]

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